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Preface This wikibook is going to be an introductory text about electric circuits. It will cover some the basics of electric circuit theory, circuit analysis, and will touch on circuit design. This book will serve as a companion reference for a 1st year of an Electrical Engineering undergraduate curriculum. Topics covered include AC and DC circuits, passive circuit components, phasors, and RLC circuits. The focus is on students of an electrical engineering undergraduate program.
Circuit Theory and Network: WBUT By S. Chakraborty Book PDF Hello Engineers if you are looking for the free download Circuit Theory and Network: WBUT By S. Chakraborty Book Free PDF then you each the right place. Circuit Theory Most of electrical engineering was invented by 1925, reduced to practice by 1935, and mathematically analyzed and scientifically understood by 1945. So what makes this book different?
Hobbyists would benefit more from reading instead. This book is not nearly completed, and could still be improved. People with knowledge of the subject are encouraged to contribute.
The main editable text of this book is located. The wikibooks version of this text is considered the most up-to-date version, and is the best place to edit this book and contribute to it. Who is This Book For? This is designed for a first course in Circuit Analysis which is usually accompanied by a set of labs. It is assumed that students are in a Differential Equations class at the same time. Phasors are used to avoid the Laplace transform of driving functions while maintaining a complex impedance transform of the physical circuit that is identical in both.
1st and 2nd order differential equations can be solved using phasors and calculus if the driving functions are sinusoidal. The sinusoidal is then replaced by the more simple step function and then the convolution integral is used to find an analytical solution to any driving function. This leaves time for a more intuitive understanding of poles, zeros, transfer functions, and Bode plot interpretation.
For those who have already had differential equations, the Laplace transform equivalent will be presented as an alternative while focusing on phasors and calculus. This book will expect the reader to have a firm understanding of Calculus specifically, and will not stop to explain the fundamental topics in Calculus. For information on Calculus, see the wikibook:. What Will This Book Cover?
This book will cover linear circuits, and linear circuit elements. The goal is to emphasize Kirchhoff and symbolic algebra systems such as matLab mupad or mathematica at the expense of node, mesh, Norton, etc. A phasor/calculus based approach starts at the very beginning and ends with the convolution integral to handle all the various types of forcing functions. The result is a linear analysis experience that is general in nature but skips Laplace and Fourier transforms. Krichhoff's laws receive normal focus, but the other circuit analysis/simplification techniques receive less than a normal attention.
The class ends with application of these concepts in Power Analysis, Filters, Control systems. The goal is set the ground work for a transition to the digital version of these concepts from a firm basis in the physical world. The next course would be one focused on modeling linear systems and analyzing them digitally in preparation for a digital signal () processing course. Where to Go From Here • For a technician version of this course which focuses on the real rather than the idea, expertise rather than theory, on algebra rather than calculus, see the wikibook • Take now that you have a practical reason to. The math class should ideally feel like an 'art' class and be enjoyable. Cctv video recording software, free download.
• To begin a course of study in Computer Engineering, see the wikibook. • For a traditional 'next' course see the wikibook. There should be an overlap with this one. • The intended next course would have a name such as. Basic Terminology. Basic Terminology There are a few key terms that need to be understood at the beginning of this book, before we can continue.
This is only a partial list of all terms that will be used throughout this book, but these key words are important to know before we begin the main narrative of this text. Time domain The time domain is described by graphs of power, voltage and current that depend upon time.
The 'Time domain' is simply another way of saying that our circuits change with time, and that the major variable used to describe the system is time. Another name is 'Temporal'. Frequency domain The frequency domain are graphs of power, voltage and/or current that depend upon frequency such as. Variable frequencies in wireless communication can represent changing channels or data on a channel. Another name is the '. Other domains that an engineer might encounter are the 'Laplace domain' (or the 's domain' or 'complex frequency domain'), and the 'Z domain'.
When combined with the time, it is called a 'Spectral' or '.' Circuit Response Circuits generally have inputs and outputs.
In fact, it is safe to say that a circuit isn't useful if it doesn't have one or the other (usually both). Circuit response is the relationship between the circuit's input to the circuit's output.
The circuit response may be a measure of either current or voltage. Non-homogeneous Circuits are described by equations that capture the the component characteristics and how they are wired together. These equations are non-homogeneous in nature. Solving these equations requires splitting the single problem into two problems: Steady State Solution (particular solution) and Transient Solution (homogeneous solution). Steady State Solution The final value, when all circuit elements have a constant or periodic behaviour, is also known as the steady-state value of the circuit. The circuit response at steady state (when voltages and currents have stopped changing due to a disturbance) is also known as the 'steady state response'.
The steady state solution to the particular integral is called the. Transient Response A transient response occurs when: a circuit is turned on or off a sensor responds to the physical world changes static electricity is discharged an old car with old spark plugs (before resistors were put in spark plugs) drives by Transient means momentary, or a short period of time. Transient means that the energy in a circuit suddenly changes which causes the energy storage elements to react. The circuit's energy state is forced to change. When a car goes over a bump, it can fly apart, feel like a rock, or cushion the impact in a designed manner. The goal of most circuit design is to plan for transients, whether intended or not. Transient solutions are determined by assuming the driving function(s) is zero which creates a homogeneous equation, which has a technique.
Summary When something changes in a circuit, there is a certain transition period before a circuit 'settles down', and reaches its final value. The response that a circuit has before settling into its steady-state response is known as the transient response. Using, and the, a technique will be developed that captures the transient response by assuming the final state has no energy. In addition, a technique will be developed that finds the final energy state. Added together, they predict the circuit response.
The related development of homogeneous and particular solutions will be avoided. Variables and Standard Units. For the rest of this book, the lower-case J ( j ) will be used to denote an imaginary number, and the lower-case I ( i ) will be used to denote current. Because of the widespread use of complex numbers in Electrical Engineering, it is common for electrical engineering texts to use the letter 'j' (lower-case J) as the imaginary number, instead of the 'i' (lower-case I) commonly used in math texts. This wikibook will adopt the 'j' as the imaginary number, to avoid confusion. Energy and Power Electrical theory is about energy storage and the flow of energy in circuits.
Energy is chopped up arbitrarily into something that doesn't exist but can be counted called a coulomb. Energy per coulomb is voltage. The velocity of a coulomb is current. Multiplied together, the units are energy velocity or power. And the unreal 'coulomb' disappears. Energy Energy is measured most commonly in Joules, which are abbreviated with a 'J' (upper-case J).
The variable most commonly used with energy is 'w' (lower-case W). The energy symbol is w which stands for work. From a thermodynamics point of view, all energy consumed by a circuit is work. All the heat is turned into work. Practically speaking, this can not be true.
If it were true, computers would never consume any energy and never heat up. The reason that all the energy going into a circuit and leaving a circuit is considered 'work' is because from a thermodynamic point of view, electrical energy is ideal. Santa Esmeralda Discography Rar Downloads.
All of it can be used. Ideally all of it can be turned into work.
Most introduction to thermodynamics courses assume that electrical energy is completely organized (and has entropy of 0). Power A corollary to the concept of energy being work, is that all the energy/power of a circuit (ideally) can be accounted for. The sum of all the power entering and leaving a circuit should add up to zero.
No energy should be accumulated (theoretically). Of course capacitors will charge up and may hold onto their energy when the circuit is turned off.
Inductors will create a magnetic field containing energy that will instantly disappear back into the source through the switch that turns the circuit off. This course uses what is called the ' sign convention for power. Energy put into a circuit by a power supply is negative, energy leaving a circuit is positive. Power (the flow of energy) computations are an important part of this course. The symbol for power is w (for work) and the units are Watts or W.
Electric Circuit Basics. Circuits Circuits (also known as 'networks') are collections of circuit elements and wires. Wires are designated on a schematic as being straight lines. Nodes are locations on a schematic where 2 or more wires connect, and are usually marked with a dark black dot.
Circuit Elements are 'everything else' in a sense. Most basic circuit elements have their own symbols so as to be easily recognizable, although some will be drawn as a simple box image, with the specifications of the box written somewhere that is easy to find. We will discuss several types of basic circuit components in this book. Ideal Wires For the purposes of this book, we will assume that an ideal wire has zero total resistance, no capacitance, and no inductance.
A consequence of these assumptions is that these ideal wires have infinite bandwidth, are immune to interference, and are — in essence — completely uncomplicated. This is not the case in real wires, because all wires have at least some amount of associated resistance. Also, placing multiple real wires together, or bending real wires in certain patterns will produce small amounts of capacitance and inductance, which can play a role in circuit design and analysis. This book will assume that all wires are ideal. Ideal Junctions or Nodes. Nodes are areas where the Electromotive Force is the same. Nodes are also called 'junctions' in this book in order to make a distinction between Node analysis, Kirchhoff's current law and discussions about a physical node itself.
Here a physical node is discussed. A junction is a group of wires that share the same (not voltage). Wires ideally have no resistance, thus all wires that touch wire to wire somewhere are part of the same node. The diagram on the right shows three big blue nodes, two smaller green nodes and two trivial (one wire touching another) nodes.
Sometimes a node is described as where two or more wires touch and students circle where wires intersect and call this a node. This only works on simple circuits. One node has to be labeled ground in any circuit drawn before voltage can be computed or the circuit simulated.
Typically this is the node having the most components connected to it. Logically it is normally placed at the bottom of the circuit logic diagram. Ground is not always needed physically. Some circuits are on purpose. Measuring instruments Voltmeters and Ammeters are devices that are used to measure the voltage across an element, and the current flowing through a wire, respectively.
Ideal Voltmeters An ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance (in reality, several megaohms), and acts like an open circuit. A is placed across the terminals of a circuit element, to determine the voltage across that element. In practice the voltmeter siphons a enough energy to move a needle, cause thin strips of metal to separate or turn on a transistor so a number is displayed.
Ideal Ammeters An ideal ammeter has zero resistance and acts like a short circuit. Ammeters require cutting a wire and plugging the two ends into the Ammeter. In practice an ammeter places a tiny resistor in a wire and measures the tiny voltage across it or the ammeter measures the generated by current flowing through a wire. Ammeters are not used that much because of the wire cutting, or wire disconnecting they require.
Active Passive & ReActive The elements which are capable of delivering energy or which are capable to amplify the signal are called 'Active elements'. All power supplies fit into this category.
The elements which will receive the energy and dissipate it are called 'Passive elements'. Resistors model these devices. Reactive elements store and release energy into a circuit. Ideally they don't either consume or generate energy. Capacitors, and inductors fall into this category. Open and Short Circuits Open No current flows through an open. Normally an open is created by a bad connector.
Dust, bad solder joints, bad crimping, cracks in circuit board traces, create an open. Capacitors respond to DC by turning into opens after charging up. Uncharged inductors appear as opens immediately after powering up a circuit. The word open can refer to a problem description. The word open can also help develop an intuition about circuits. Typically the circuit stops working with opens because 99% of all circuits are driven by voltage power sources.
Voltage sources respond to an open with no current. Opens are the equivalent of clogs in plumbing. Which stop water from flowing. On one side of the open, EMF will build up, just like water pressure will build up on one side of a clogged pipe.
Typically a voltage will appear across the open. Short A voltage source responds to a short by delivering as much current as possible. An extreme example of this can be seen in this.
The motor appears as a short to the battery. Notice he only completes the short for a short time because he is worried about the car battery exploding. Maximum current flows through a short. Normally a short is created by a wire, a nail, or some loose screw touching parts of the circuit unintentionally. Most component failures start with heat build up.
The heat destroys varnish, paint, or thin insulation creating a short. The short causes more current to flow which causes more heat. This cycle repeats faster and faster until there is a puff of smoke and everything breaks creating an open. Most component failures start with a short and end in an open as they burn up. Toast titanium for mac. Feel the air temperature above each circuit component after power on.
Build a memory of what normal operating temperatures are. Cold can indicate a short that has already turned into an open. An uncharged capacitor initially appears as a short immediately after powering on a circuit. An inductor appears as a short to DC after charging up. The short concept also helps build our intuition, provides an opportunity to talk about electrical safety and helps describe component failure modes. A closed switch can be thought of as short. Are surprisingly complicated.
It is in a study of switches that the term closed begins to dominate that of short. Resistors and Resistance. A simple circuit diagram relating current, voltage, and resistance The drawing on the right is of a battery and a resistor.
Current is leaving the + terminal of the battery. This means this battery is turning chemical potential energy into electromagnetic potential energy and dumping this energy into the circuit. The flow of this energy or power is negative. Current is entering the positive side of the resistor even though a + has not been put on the resistor. This means electromagnetic potential energy is being converted into heat, motion, light, or sound depending upon the nature of the resistor. Power flowing out of the circuit is given a positive sign.
The relationship of the voltage across the resistor V, the current through the resistor I and the value of the resistor R is related. Source Transformations Independent current sources can be turned into independent voltage sources, and vice-versa, by methods called 'Source Transformations.'
These transformations are useful for solving circuits. We will explain the two most important source transformations, Thevenin's Source, and Norton's Source, and we will explain how to use these conceptual tools for solving circuits. Black Boxes A circuit (or any system, for that matter) may be considered a black box if we don't know what is inside the system. For instance, most people treat their computers like a black box because they don't know what is inside the computer (most don't even care), all they know is what goes in to the system (keyboard and mouse input), and what comes out of the system (monitor and printer output).
Black boxes, by definition, are systems whose internals aren't known to an outside observer. The only methods that an outside observer has to examine a black box is to send input into the systems, and gauge the output.
Thevenin's Theorem Let's start by drawing a general circuit consisting of a source and a load, as a block diagram. It is important to note that under conditions of maximum power transfer as much power is dissipated in the source as in the load. This is not a desirable condition if, for example, the source is the electricity supply system and the load is your electric heater. This would mean that the electricity supply company would be wasting half the power it generates. In this case, the generators, power lines, etc. Are designed to give the lowest source resistance possible, giving high efficiency. The maximum power transfer condition is used in (usually high-frequency) communications systems where the source resistance can not be made low, the power levels are relatively low and it is paramount to get as much signal power as possible to the receiving end of the system (the load).
Resistive Circuit Analysis Methods. Analysis Methods When circuits get large and complicated, it is useful to have various methods for simplifying and analyzing the circuit. There is no perfect formula for solving a circuit. Depending on the type of circuit, there are different methods that can be employed to solve the circuit. Some methods might not work, and some methods may be very difficult in terms of long math problems. Two of the most important methods for solving circuits are Nodal Analysis, and Mesh Current Analysis. These will be explained below.
Superposition One of the most important principals in the field of circuit analysis is the principal of superposition. It is valid only in linear circuits.
• x(t) = system input • h(t) = impulse response • y(t) = system output Where x(t) is the input to the circuit, h(t) is the circuit's impulse response, and y(t) is the output. Boom 1 7 Keygen Download Crack. Here, we can find the output by convoluting the impulse response with the input to the circuit.
Hence we see that the impulse response of a circuit is not just the ratio of the output over the input. In the frequency domain however, component in the output with frequency ω is the product of the input component with the same frequency and the transition function at that frequency.
The moral of the story is this: the output to a circuit is the input convolved with the impulse response. If we accidentally or purposefully put two inductors close together, we can actually transfer voltage and current from one inductor to another. This property is called Mutual Inductance. A device which utilizes mutual inductance to alter the voltage or current output is called a transformer. The inductor that creates the magnetic field is called the primary coil, and the inductor that picks up the magnetic field is called the secondary coil. Transformers are designed to have the greatest mutual inductance possible by winding both coils on the same core.
(In calculations for inductance, we need to know which materials form the path for magnetic flux. Air core coils have low inductance; Cores of iron or other magnetic materials are better 'conductors' of magnetic flux.) The voltage that appears in the secondary is caused by the change in the shared magnetic field, each time the current through the primary changes. Thus, transformers work on A.C.
Power, since the voltage and current change continuously. Ideal Transformers Modern Inductors. Screen shot of matlab with simulink toolbox showing how to get to the state-space block for wikibook circuit analysis This would not be a step forward without tools such as MatLab. These are the relevant MatLab control system toolbox commands: • step(A,B,C,D) assumes the initial conditions are zero • initial(A,B,C,D,X(0)) just like step but takes into account the initial conditions X(0) In addition, there is a simulink block called 'State Space' that can be used the same way. Video Introduction • • Further reading • • matlab help links.
Laplace Circuit Solution One of the most important uses of the Laplace transform is to solve linear differential equations, just like the type of equations that represent our first- and second-order circuits. This page will discuss the use of the Laplace Transform to find the complete response of a circuit.
Steps Here are the general steps for solving a circuit using the Laplace Transform: • Determine the differential equation for the circuit. • Use the Laplace Transform on the differential equation. • Solve for the unknown variable in the laplace domain. Mount your friends mods.
• Use the inverse laplace transform to find the time domain solution. Another method that we can use is: • Transform the individual circuit components into impedance values using the Laplace Transform.
• Find the Transfer function that describes the circuit • Solve for the unknown variable in the laplace domain. • Use the inverse laplace transform to find the time domain solution. Impedance Let's recap: In the transform domain, the quantities of resistance, capacitance, and inductance can all be combined into a single complex value known as 'Impedance'. Impedance is denoted with the letter Z, and can be a function of s or jω, depending on the transform used (Laplace or Fourier).
This impedance is very similar to the phasor concept of impedance, except that we are in the complex domain (laplace or fourier), and not the phasor domain. Impedance is a complex quantity, and is therefore comprised of two components: The real component (resistance), and the complex component (reactance). Resistors, because they do not vary with time or frequency, have real values. Capacitors and inductors however, have imaginary values of impedance. The resistance is denoted (as always) with a capital R, and the reactance is denoted with an X (this is common, although it is confusing because X is also the most common input designator). We have therefore, the following relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance.
Further reading Pages listed here are sources of further information on the topic of electric circuits, or are additional subjects that may be of interest for a reader of this book. Many of the resources listed here are sources of information, and this may be treated as a bibliography for this wikibook. Wikibooks • Wikibooks: • Wikibooks: • Wikibooks: • Wikibooks: The following Wikibooks list as a prerequisite: Other Resources • Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1989. • US Navy, Basic Electrity, Dover, 1970.
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• US Navy, Basic Electronics, Dover, 1973. • Comer and Comer, Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2003. • Dorf and Svoboda, Introduction to Electric Circuits, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.